The acute accent has been added to indicate the pitch accent. The follow-. Essentially, what we need is a Japanese guide to learning Japanese grammar. A Japanese guide to learning Japanese grammar This guide is an attempt to systematically build up the grammatical structures that make up the Japanese language in a way that makes sense in Japanese. Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar provides an innovative reference guide to Mandarin Chinese, combining traditional and function-based grammar in a single volume.
The Grammar is divided into two parts. Part A covers traditional grammatical categories such. Part A Structures 1 Introduction: major features of Japanese grammar 3 1. Part B Functions I Social interaction and communication strategies II Giving and seeking information III Expressing emotions and sensations IV Speaking as performing acts This book is a reference guide which provides an overview of Japanese grammar and its functions.
The book is divided into two major parts: Structures and Functions. Part A — Structures is a concise grammar of Japanese organized in the familiar and traditional way, describing the forms and major constructions of the language. This section should be used for quick reference when you want to know about or review a form or structure. For example, if you want to review the verbal conjugation patterns, the use of particles wa and ga, or the structure of the passive form, you should consult this section.
Part B — Functions is the larger of the two. It is organized around language functions, and it will present situationally appropriate expressions, not merely what is grammatically accurate. This section will cover four major areas: social interaction and communication strategies, giv- ing and seeking information, expressing emotions and sensations, and speaking as performing acts e. If you want to know, for example, how to address someone, how to apologize, how to invite someone, how to compliment others, etc.
Often, the same ground is covered in both parts of this book, although the emphasis is different. Extensive cross-references between sections are provided and indicated by arrows in the margin.
It is important to refer back and forth between the two parts of the book, so you can get a good grasp of both the structures and the way they are used. There is also an index of words and topics so that readers can find information quickly and easily. All Japanese utterances can be either in formal polite style or informal casual style. We have tried to include examples in both styles for each situation as much as possible.
We hope readers will find this book informative and helpful. We will be delighted to learn how the book has been used and to receive any comments you might have. We would like to express our appreciation to the three reviewers of the manuscript for provid- ing us detailed and very helpful feedback.
We believe their comments greatly helped improve the quality of the manuscript. We also thank our Routledge editors Andrea Hartill and Samantha Vale Noya, and senior editorial assistant Isabelle Cheng for their encouragement and patience.
We are grateful to Tessa Carroll for her careful editing of the manuscript, and to Hironori Nishi for his help with preparing an index. Adjectives see 13 Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns. There are two types of adjectives in Japanese — i adjectives and na adjectives.
Each type has its own conjugation patterns. Tokyo is a big city. Tokyo is a bustling city. Adverbs see 14 Adverbs are words that precede and modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and even whole clauses.
Tanaka-san always talks very slowly. He definitely said so. Agent The agent is the performer of an action. Hanako invited Mary. Mary was invited by Hanako. Aspect see In Japanese, -te iru, -te aru, -te shimau are some of the most common aspectual markers. I am studying right now. The window has been opened. Case particles see They are ga subject , o direct object , ni indirect object , and no possessive. John showed Lisa a picture of his dog. John is playing tennis. Classifiers see 16 Classifiers are suffixes that are used with numbers in counting objects, including people and animals.
Different classifiers are used depending on the characteristics of these objects e. I received two bottles of wine. There are two classifier dogs. Please hand me one sheet of paper. Clauses A clause is a grammatical unit that contains at least a predicate e. A clause can be either a dependent clause or a main clause.
Because I watched many Japanese TV dramas, my listening comprehension improved. In the above sentences, omoimasen and mimi ga yoku narimashita are the main clauses, while the parts followed by to and kara are the subordinate clauses. Complement clause see 26 A complement is a clause which functions as the subject or the object of a verb. A complement clause is indicated by koto, no, or to. I listened to my daughter play the piano.
I realized that explaining the story was difficult. Compounds see 17 A compound is a single word formed by combining two or more words. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the two. Rolled sushi is popular. The bell started to ring. Conjunctions see 22 Conjunctions connect two or more clauses into one sentence. I am studying Japanese because it is interesting. Although there is no one, there is a voice. Although I lived in Germany, I cannot speak German.
Connectives see 22 Connectives appear at the beginning of an independent sentence and indicate how that sentence relates to the previous sentence. Dakara, arubaito o shinakereba narimasen. So, I have to work part-time. Sorede kurasu ni okurete shimaimashita. The bus was late. And so, I was late for class. Demo, tanoshii desu. I am busy every day. But, I am happy. Sorekara kooen o sanpo shimashita. We ate at a restaurant. Then, we took a walk in the park. They are attached to a noun and a na-type adjective and function like the be-verb in English.
Another copula form, de aru, is mainly used in formal writing. That person is a teacher. Cherry blossoms are pretty. Cherry blossom is the symbol of Japan. What is that building? This is interesting. When the subject is the third person, the suffix tagaru is used.
I want to eat sushi. The children want to eat sweets. It seems that my roommate came home late last night. It seems that I have caught a cold. Formal Style Formal style is the style of speech used in situations where one feels formality is appropriate or required e. In formal style, the predicate is in the polite form. I am a student. I will go tomorrow. Generic nouns Generic nouns are nouns that refer to classes such as the Japanese Japanese people in general , or a member of the class as a representative of its class.
Japanese people like hot springs. A whale is a mammal. Honorifics see 29 Honorifics is the use of language to show respect to someone who is considered to be socially superior in terms of social rank, age, and other factors such as social distance. Tanaka the other day. In this style, the predicate is in plain form. Takushii da. I will go. The membership, however, shifts depending on the interactional situation. Shachoo wa ima ofisu ni irasshaimasen. Company President X is not in the office right now.
Shachoo wa ima dekakete orimasu ga. Company President X is not here right now. A noun phrase is a noun with a modifier. Direct objects are nouns and pronouns that are directly affected by the action of the verb. In Japanese, direct objects are usually marked by the particle o. They are generally marked by ni.
I gave my friend a bottle of wine. This form is used in casual conversation and in formal writing e. Tokyo is interesting. I will eat later. Polite form Polite form is the predicate form with desu or masu and their past tense and negative variants.
This form is used in speaking in a formal polite style. Postpositions see I get up at seven every morning. I ate with chopsticks. Predicate see 1. Verbs, i-type adjectives, and the copula can be predicates in Japanese. My father went to work. It is cold today. Prefix see My hometown is a quiet town.
The person I met yesterday was an interesting person. Pronoun see 8 A pronoun is a word that is used to replace a noun or noun phrase. Sore wa amari oishiku nakatta. I bought an apple at the supermarket. It was not very tasty. Resultant state see The window is open.
The window opened or was opened at some point in the past and the result remains: it is open. Sentence see 5 A sentence is commonly made up of a subject and a predicate and expresses a complete idea. The subject can be omitted in Japanese, so a sentence minimally consists of a predicate. Are you going? A sentence may contain more than one clause. Sentence-final particles see The most common final particles are ne, yo, and ka.
It is delicious, I tell you. Does it taste good? Subject see 1. If the sentence denotes a state rather than an action, the subject is what the predicate verb, adjective or copula phrase describes. The moon is beautiful tonight. Suffix A suffix is a short element that is attached to the end of a word to change the meaning of or to add an additional meaning to the word. The tense is expressed by a suffix, which attaches to the predicate. There are two tenses in Japanese: nonpast and past.
I watch movies. I watched movies. Topic see 1. The topic often overlaps with the subject of a sentence, but it can be other parts of speech as well.
Topics are marked by the particle wa in Japanese. On weekends, I go shopping. As for dinner, I usually eat at home. Verb see 12 A verb is a word that expresses the physical or mental activities carried out by the subject of a sentence. I often watch movies. Do you understand English? I ate dinner. A dog barked. There are swings in the park. I have a younger sister. They express events, movements or the spontaneous changes undergone by the subject. The new semester started yesterday. Trees fell because of the typhoon.
They express what an agent does. I often borrow books. My father bought a new car. Verb phrase A verb phrase is a verb plus another word within a sentence that is closely connected with the verb such as a direct object, a complement, or an adverb. Yesterday, I met with my friend at a restaurant. Tomorrow, I want to relax. Several modifications, however, have been made, and they are: 1. Long vowels are represented by double letters, as in aa, ii, uu, ee, oo. Japanese is therefore classified as a verb-final language.
The predicate may be a verb, an i-type adjective, or a copula. The main predicates are underlined in the examples in this section. Hanako came. The sky is blue. This is the problem. The subway is convenient. When the predicate is a verb, the associated noun phrases, such as those representing time, location, partner, direct object DO and indirect object IO , usually precede the verb.
Some typical word orders are provided in 1 — 4. Any of the phrases appearing in parentheses need not be overtly expressed. A rule of thumb is that when a pronoun is used in English, nothing is used in Japanese. There are students in the classroom. Mari ate sushi with Ken in Ginza.
John sent an e-mail to Lisa yesterday. The short words following the nouns in the above examples ga, wa, to, ni, de, o are called particles, and they indicate the grammatical relation of each noun to the verb. The example immediately above basically means the same as does the following, with the position of the time word and the indirect object switched.
To summarize, although the predicate usually appears at the end of a sentence, the order among noun phrases is relatively free. CC 5; Below, the words surrounded by brackets [ ] indicate a modifier.
When a word modifies a noun, there are four patterns. Who is the person [who made this anime]? Yesterday I met with my friend in the coffee shop [which is in front of the station]. In such cases, the adverb appears at the very beginning of the sentence. They are eating soba buckwheat noodles [while standing]. Those that are attached to nouns are similar to prepositions in English e.
Unlike English prepositions, Japanese particles also called postpositions follow, instead of precede, the element with which they are associated.
For example, Nihon de Lit. Some examples appear below. While case particles indicate the grammatical roles of nouns, such as subject ga , direct object o , and indirect object ni , postpositions bear specific meanings.
Conjunctive particles connect either nouns or clauses. Sentence-final particles appear at the end of a sentence and indicate the func- tion of a sentence e. CC 10; The difference between ga and wa can sometimes be likened to that between an indefinite noun e. A man came to see me yesterday. The man was wearing a black shirt. The following is the Japanese version of the same sentences.
Sono hito wa kuroi shatsu o kite imashita. Which one is the doctor? That person is the doctor. The noun marked by ga is the subject of the sentence, while that marked by wa is the topic of the sentence.
In a , Tanaka and Yamada are talking about a certain person i. Tanaka asks what he does, and Yamada answers that he is a doctor, using wa. In b , on the other hand, Tanaka might be at the hospital, looking for a doctor.
Seeing there are several people around, he asks which one is the doctor. A topic most often expresses the subject at the same time, but it can have any number of functions; e.
CC The order of these suffixes is generally fixed, with the tense morpheme appearing at or near the end of the sentence. The absent phrases may be the subject, direct and indirect object, time, location, means, partner, and the like.
The particle associated with an absent noun must also be absent. In the examples below, the phrases in parentheses in the English equivalents are absent in Japanese. Did you do the homework? I did it already. Ga and ni, too, are sometimes omitted.
This is because these particles express functions, such as topic, direct object, subject, and indirect object, respectively, rather than meanings. My name is Suzuki Lit. I humbly call myself Suzuki. Thank you very much for your telephone call today. Is it raining right now?
I was having dinner with my friend in my apartment yesterday, and. Long vowels are transcribed with double letters herein; e. A mora may consist of a single vowel e. Each mora is pronounced with roughly an equal length of time, or one beat. Hokkaidoo place name , for example, contains three syllables Hok-kai-doo and six moras Ho-k-ka-i-do-o , while kyandii candy contains two syllables kyan-dii and four moras kya-n-di-i. When longer words are shortened or new words are created by combining two words, they often have three or four moras; e.
This is called sequential voicing. Loan words from the West do not generally undergo sequential voicing. Sometimes even the same word behaves differently depending on the word it is combined with; e. Additional examples follow. Each mora carries a high higher or low lower pitch.
Unlike a tone language such as Chinese, once we know where the pitch falls for each word, the accent pattern is predictable in Japanese, although the location of where the pitch falls i. Pitch patterns vary greatly according to geographic regions. Accented and unaccented words, however, can easily be distinguished by attaching a particle like ga; e.
Near homophonous words may be distinguished by accent patterns, as in the following examples. Four types of writing system are used in Japanese: hiragana, katakana, kanji and, to a lesser degree, roomaji. A very general description of each type follows the example sentence below.
They were cre- ated from the cursive style of kanji Chinese characters with similar sounds; e. They are chiefly used for particles e. Train station names also appear in hiragana, as well as in kanji, on signs. They were created by taking a fragment of kanji Chinese characters with similar sounds; e. Some katakana symbols are based on the same kanji as those on which the corresponding hiragana symbols are based, but not all of them.
Katakana symbols look angular, compared to the curvy hiragana. Katakana is used mainly for loan words especially those from countries other than China , to represent sounds onomatopoeia , to express special nuances of words, including slang expressions, and to make a sound or word stand out from the rest.
They are used for nouns and substantive parts of verbs and adjectives; e. Among adults, there are individual preferences even for the same words. Some people like to use kanji, while others do not. Recently, it is becoming more and more common to write the names of pop artists JUJU, Superfly , bands e. Love in romaji or English.
As in other languages, words that are important to the speakers often have fine distinctions; e. They occupy more than half the modern Japanese vocabulary. Many express abstract, scholarly and complicated concepts e. Gairaigo loan words have come from various sources and at different times. In the sixteenth century Portuguese words e. Since the nineteenth century, there has been an influx of words from German e. As new inventions and concepts are imported, so are the words along with them; e.
These words are not only used in comic books and small talk, but in literature and intellectual conversations. Thunder is rumbling. I looked up at the sky without thinking, and saw beautiful stars. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish giongo from gitaigo; e.
For example, voiced consonants e. Do-words are part of the demonstrative series ko-so-a-do; e. What is there? What are you going to buy? By what means did you go? What is that? What is the book about?
No one is coming. When other particles are attached to interrogatives e. English and Japanese indefinites are quite different. I was busy because someone came to see me , but this is not possible in Japanese. Also, Japanese indefinites cannot be modified as can English counterparts; e. A noun is required, in addition to the modifier such as adjectives and relative clauses.
Is there anyone who knows the answer? What would be good? Anything would be fine. When shall we go? Anytime would be the same for me. There are some problems. There are many, many problems. All predicates in Japanese have both a plain form and a polite form. See 6. The following illustrates sentences with predicates in plain and polite nonpast affirmative forms. Nonpast plain form Nonpast polite form. Nonpast plain affirmative Nonpast plain negative. Nonpast polite affirmative Nonpast polite negative.
Past affirmative plain form Past affirmative polite form. Past negative plain form Past negative polite form. Verb: - a na katta -masen deshita ik-anakatta ik-imasen deshita tabe-nakatta tabe-masen deshita i-Adjective: -ku nakatta -ku nakatta desu or -ku arimasen deshita yasuku nakatta yasuku nakatta desu or yasuku arimasen deshita Copula: ja nakatta ja nakatta desu or ja arimasen deshita shizuka ja nakatta shizuka ja nakatta desu or shizuka ja arimasen deshita.
Da informal style , desu formal style , and de aru literary form are called copulas. This structure is generally used to describe the identity or attributes of the subject. I am a cat. CC Appendices conjugation tables Given a specific context, a nominal predicate sentence can express a wide variety of meanings beyond the identity or attribute of the subject.
For example, this construction can be used as an answer to a question such as the following. What are you going to do tomorrow? Watashi wa kaimono desu. The kids will play soccer. I will go shopping. In informal style speech, the copula da is often omitted.
What are you going to have? Boku wa katsudon da. I will have the tempura. I will have the breaded pork cutlet on rice.
There are two types of adjectives, i-type and na-type. The desu used with i-adjectives indicates politeness, while that used with na-adjectives is a copula. Tokyo is big. Tokyo is lively. The verb aru is used to state the existence of an inanimate object, while iru is used for an animate object such as a person or an animal. Ga markes the subject, a thing or a person that exists. There is a book here. There is a child over there. In this structure, X wa is the topic of the sentence and the speaker is pointing out where X is.
The school is over there. The child is at home. In general, the subject is marked by ga or wa, the direct object by o, and the indirect object by ni. When the context makes it clear, all elements except the verb can be omitted. X represents the topic of the sentence, and Y is a comment on X. In many cases, X corresponds to a constituent of Y, such as the subject, object, or possessor.
Almost any noun, with its associated particle, can be made into a topic of the sentence. The topic particle wa replaces ga and o, but follows other particles like de location and to partner ; X de wa in place X,.
It normally appears at the beginning of a sentence. Speaking of Hanako, she bought a book. I am going to study with my friends on the weekend. After parting from my friends, I went to a coffee shop alone. The particle to is also used with the object of comparison; e. It is said that the Korean language is similar to the Japanese language. The Japanese language is quite different from English. In the following sentences, to indicates that the speaker and the friend were equal partners of the action; i.
I met with my friend at the library. I saw or ran into my teacher at the library. In the examples below, too, when to is used, the friend was an equal partner in the discussion, whereas ni indicates that the speaker went to the friend to consult. Tomodachi to soodan shita. I consulted my friend. I discussed the matter with my friend. In speech, the particle ni is frequently used instead of e. I am going to Osaka tomorrow. I traveled throughout Japan, from Kyushu to Hokkaido.
You can see Mt. Fuji clearly from here. Only Ken subject ate sushi direct object. Ken subject and topic ate only sushi direct object. Ken subject and topic studies at school location. Ken subject and topic studies only at school location. When these particles are added to ga subject and o direct object , they replace ga and o.
Otherwise, they follow other particles. Merii mo kita. John came. Mary also came. Soshite Chuugokugo mo hanasu.
John speaks Japanese. And he also speaks Chinese. Nihon ni mo aru. It is also in Japan. Second, shika implies that the speaker views the amount or action expressed in the sentence to be less than expected, while dake has no such implication. I have exactly 5, yen. Since I did not have time, I just only had coffee. Did you drink lots of beer? No, I only drank one bottle of beer. When are you going to Japan? They are also frequently used to express rapport. In the example below, speaker A comments on the weather and asks for agreement with ne.
The two instances of ne are obligatory. Without them, the sentences would be declarative, with the speaker announcing something the other party does not know about, which would be odd in this situation. Yes, it is. The movie starts at seven, right?
Um, my name is Hanako Yamada. Ms Hanako Yamada? Ne, usually elongated as nee, often expresses exclamation. That must have been tough. Another function of ne is to soften the tone of a request e. When a social subordinate makes a request, it is more appropriately expressed as a question e.
Please have a look at this document, OK? Some instances of ne e are optional. How much are these tangerines? The particles ne and nee as well as ka, yo, etc. Ne e is used not only after sentences, but also after phrases. This kind of ne is especially common in telephone conversations. Um, yesterday, I visited your place. I have decided to leave the company next month, I tell you. Three types of usage can be identified. You see a blue building there, right?
I thought I was going to die, you know. Studying a foreign language is not so difficult for me. What does happiness mean to you? To modify another noun phrase, the particle no is added after the complex particle.
I wrote about global warming. I wrote [a report on global warming]. What do you think about this issue? The particle wa introduces the topic of a sentence. The topic is a word or a group of words that indicates what the sentence is about. Wa replaces particle ga subject marker and o object marker , while it attaches to other particles ni, de, to, e, kara, made, etc. Compare the sentences with and without a topic.
Speaking of this book, John wrote it. Kyoto de wa is the topic. In Kyoto, I saw temples. In the example below, Smith is introduced as a non-topic first and then becomes the topic of the following sentence.
Generic nouns e. Japanese people work a lot. President Lincoln was born in Illinois. There are other ways a noun can be a topic without being previously mentioned. The important thing is that the hearer can identify what the speaker is talking about from the context. The sentence type also contributes to whether a noun can be a topic or not. There is money on the ground!
Money is important. The same noun okane appears both in a and b. In a , money refers to specific money that is on the ground, while in b , it refers to money in the generic sense. Also, while sentence a describes a specific situation that exists at the time of speaking, sentence b is a generic state- ment. Hence, the use of X wa in b. The contrastive wa is stressed with high pitch. When there is another particle directly preceding it, that particle is pronounced with high pitch.
My child speaks Japanese at home, but English at school. In a negative sentence, one wa usually indicates contrast. In the example below, the first wa watashi wa indicates topic, but the second wa osushi wa indicates contrast.
The following sentence implies that the speaker went to other places, but not London. Rondon e wa ikimasen deshita ga, totemo tanoshikatta desu. I went to Europe for the summer vacation. I did not go to London, but it was a lot of fun. When there are more than two wa phrases in a sentence, the wa that immediately precedes the predicate is usually interpreted as contrastive. The sentence implies that the speaker drank something else.
When it does, wa is invariably interpreted as contrastive. The following sentence means that the speaker can speak a little but not very well. He does not skip classes, but. In [X wa Y], Y is the comment on X, and the new information one wants to convey in utter- ing this sentence is the Y part.
In [X ga Y], X represents the new information. When you are looking at a building and the hearer wants to know what that building is, a is appropriate. Sentence b is appropriate when the hearer wants to know which building is the school. Ga is used when one is describing a scene that one can observe. You look outside and see a cat. Niwa ni neko ga iru. Looking outside, you notice that it is raining. The subject of the subordinate clause is generally marked by ga. The main subject of e is the speaker.
In f , on the other hand, since wa is used, the main subject as well as the subject of the subordinate clause is kodomo. Because my child is sick, I cannot go to school. The plain nonpast form of -ru verbs ends with -iru or -eru.
The plain nonpast form of -u verbs ends with -u, -tsu, -ru. The plain past form of -ru verbs is formed by replacing -ru with -ta. Plain, aff. The plain past form of -u verbs varies depending on the last syllable of the dictionary form of the verb. Te-forms are used to link clauses and also in many constructions with auxiliary verbs.
Obviously, all the ru-verbs and irregular verbs do, and many of the u-verbs as well. They only require the subject of the sentence. Intransitive verbs represent movements, events or spontaneous changes. I walked 10 km this morning. Because of a typhoon, trees fell down.
Flowers bloomed. Intransitive verbs expressing motion take the particle o to express traversed space; e. Transitive verbs require a direct object in addition to the subject of the sentence. Transitive verbs typically express actions with someone acting upon something or someone else; i. Many verbs come in intransitive and transitive pairs. There are ten major types of pairs depend- ing on the suffixes. The verbs ending in -su are all transitive, and their intransitive counterparts end in -ru.
One cannot say that all the verbs ending in -ru are intransitive, however. CC 40; Durative verbs represent an action or a process, which assumes duration. Controllable verbs describe actions that the agent doer is able to control. When there is a transitive— intransitive pair of verbs, the transitive verbs express controllable actions while the intransitive counterparts usually express non-controllable, spontaneous happenings.
The window opened because of the wind. I opened the window because it was hot. I cannot see the Powerpoint slides very well they are not visible. This type of design will sell well this year. You can see all kinds of musicals if you go to New York. You can listen to Japanese music on this channel.
The formation depends on the types of verbs; -ru, -u and irregular verbs. With -ru verbs, the final -ru is replaced by -rareru; with -u verbs, the final -u is replaced by -eru.
The potential forms of the irregular verbs suru and kuru are dekiru and korareru, respectively. N2 ga represents the object of the verb. Can you eat sashimi?
If you go to Akihabara, you can buy electronic items cheaply. I can play tennis. The particle o is often used to mark N2 in the potential construction. How do you think you can change the present situation? I would like to become able to read and write one thousand kanji by the end of this semester. The direct object and the indirect object are marked by the par- ticles o and ni, respectively.
Ageru is used when the speaker gives something to someone or when a third party gives something to someone else. Mari gave Ken a hat. Kureru is used when someone gives something to the speaker. This is a TV set which my friend gave me for my wedding. My parents gave me an iPad for Christmas. In this case, the receiver is the subject of the sentence. The person from whom one receives i. I always receive various things from my aunt.
On her birthday last year, my mother received a ring from my father. To indicate the source i. When I was in college, I received a scholarship from the government. Unlike in English, in which the speaker can be the source e.
When the subject functions as the topic as in the majority of sentences , marked by wa, the speaker is taking the viewpoint of the subject noun. My wife was given a subway map by someone who sat next to her on the train. Someone who sat next to my wife on the train gave her a subway map. There are different forms of giving and receiving verbs depending on the relative statuses among the giver, the receiver and the speaker.
My teacher gave this dictionary to me. My colleague gave me this book. My little brother gave me this car. I gave a gift card to my teacher. I gave a birthday present to my friend. Please water the flowers every day.
I got this book from my teacher. I got this pen from a friend. I got a book from my little brother. These verbs are used in the form of -te imasu, when referring to the current state or a habitual action.
Ms Tanaka is the person who has a red skirt on. Other examples follow. If you are cold, please put on this sweater. Ms Yamada always has a nice scarf on. Japanese adjectives are divided into two groups according to their conjugation pattern: i-adjectives and na-adjectives.
They have their own conjugation pattern. The stem of an i-adjective is the dictionary form i. Below, hyphens are provided between the stem and suffixes in the conjugation tables only. Dictionary Form oishi-i samu-i taka-i Stem oishi- samu- taka- delicious cold high. As explained in 6. Desu used in the i-adjective conjugation in the polite form is not a copula.
Desu here merely marks politeness. Unlike nouns and na-adjectives, i-adjectives can be predicates by themselves and they can form a sentence without desu in informal style speech and in writing.
Foreign cars are expensive. The movie was interesting. Yesterday was cold. The pre-nominal form of i-adjectives is the same as the plain form conjugation shown in CC See For example, to be a predicate of a sentence, na-adjectives require the copula, like nouns do. Unlike nouns, however, na-adjectives cannot serve as the topic, subject or object of a sentence or be modified by adjectives.
The na-adjective conjugation consists of the stem and the copula da in its conjugated form. When English adjectives are borrowed into the Japanese lexicon; e. Te-form is used to link an adjective with other predicates, as discussed in To modify nouns, both i- and na-adjectives appear in their pre- nominal form in nonpast, past, affirmative and negative.
This bag is small. This building is impressive. There are many trees in this area. There is little greenery in urban areas. I planted [many trees]. In this case, it is not the adjective by itself, but the whole clause that modifies the noun following it. I planted a tree [that has many leaves].
Couples [who rarely fight] live long. Do you want a new car? It seems that my colleague wants a new car. It is best to use it only in reference to children, family members, and close friends. My younger brother wants a new car. He is showing signs that he wants a new car.
CC See 28 for an explanation of different evidential markers. Even though he is scared, my child loves roller coasters. Shikashi, atarashii kuruma ga hoshikatta. Sokode, sarakin kara kane o kariru koto ni shita. But he wanted a new car. So he decided to borrow money from a consumer loan company. They usually precede the word they modify. I walk slowly. Taro is always late for school.
I put a lot of butter on my toast. I put butter on my toast abundantly. The children are running around very energetically.
Tomorrow will certainly be a sunny day. The stars are shining brightly lit. The adverbial form of i-adjectives is obtained by adding ku to the stem, i. With na-adjectives and nouns, the particle ni is added to derive adverbial forms.
Please write the letters correctly. The children ran energetically. Some time-related nouns are changed to an adverb by the addition of the particle ni. We all ate dinner together at the end.
Many time-related nouns function as adverbs without the particle ni; e. I brush my teeth in the morning. From verbs: There is a small group of adverbs that are derived by repetition of a verb. June came, and it has become increasingly hotter.
Please come quickly. That kind of thing happens once in a long while. My father rarely smokes. My daughter has probably already arrived. I might possibly be able to get a day off next month.
Even if it were impossible to win, I would try. It is just like a dream. Some adverbs are interpreted differently depending on whether they are used in affirmative or negative sentences; e.
I was worried, but it was totally fine. The weather is not very good today. It was excessively hot, so I turned on the air-conditioner. It is too spicy and I cannot possibly eat it. This summer is very hot. This movie is quite interesting. Examples for nonpast negative forms are given in the table below. For past tense, change -nai to -nakatta and -i masen to i masen deshita.
Note that the -nai is an i-adjective. Plain negative Polite negative. While -masen is a more established form, -nai desu is used very often, especially in conversation. The -nai desu form tends to occur in answers to questions. By using -nai desu, the speaker focuses on and emphasizes the negative fact. Then, you exercise every day? No, not every day. I am not always playing the video game. I am glad that it was not too expensive.
There are two negative -te forms for verbs: -nakute and -naide. There are three principles one can follow in using these forms. Yesterday I studied instead of going to the party. In constructions such as V neg -te kudasai, V neg -te hoshii, V neg -te morau, where V neg and the following words form a larger verb phrase, use -naide. Again -nakute is ungrammatical in these constructions. Please do not forget. I want you not to look at it.
I would like you not to talk in a loud voice. When a V neg phrase indicates a reason or cause, -nakute is preferred. I could not say it well in Japanese, and I was embarrassed.
Recent movies are not that interesting. Is something wrong? No, not particularly. I did not imagine that I would ever be stopped for speeding. Not one customer came today. There was nobody at home. However, the meaning in this case is not negative. I read only comic books. There is no way one can memorize a hundred kanji in a day. The following are some of the commonly used words that have these prefixes.
There are many people uninterested in politics. You should not drive a car without a license. Lately, I am suffering from lack of sleep. I think it is inconvenient not to have a cell phone. He is lacking in common sense to call me in the middle of night.
Unmarried women are increasing in number. There are many unsolved problems. The native numbers go only from 1 to 10 and then skip to 20 in some cases. Although the native numbers have limited usage, one of the most common is to express the ages 1 to 10 and 20; e. Room number , for example, may be pronounced san ree roku, san zero roku, or san maru roku. In the Chinese series, bad luck numbers are 4 and 9, and they are sometimes avoided.
This is because there are homophones words with same pronunciation with unlucky meanings. The series are sometimes mixed, however. The numbers to the left of the decimal point are pronounced as explained in Zero 0 is pronounced as ree or zero when it is the only number to the left of the decimal point.
Fractions When reading fractions, the whole is pronounced first, followed by the part. Classifiers are not used with adverbs that express quantities e. In English a classifier is used when describing the quantity of items classified as mass nouns nouns that are not countable ; e.
The choice of classifier depends on the class of noun. It is particularly appropriate when counting small, round or chunky objects e. Television, chairs, and dressers, for example, are supposed to be counted with specially designated classi- fiers, but tsu is commonly used instead.
Tsu is also used referring to orders at restaurants and coffee shops; e. One grain of rice remained. I ate a bowl of rice. I used one kilogram of rice. I bought three books. Two children are playing. I have one older sister and two younger brothers. A quantifier marked with no pre-nominal form of the copula can appear before the associated noun.
It is often used in the titles of stories or written materials. I arranged five roses and three gerberas together in the vase. The quantifier can also be placed before the noun it quantifies without adding no. I bought two apples at a supermarket.
I went out with two friends. I received letters of recommendation from three teachers. Some nominal com- pounds maintain the original meaning of each noun. In other nominal compounds the second noun functions as a suffix. In another, the first verb describes how the second verb i. Formal nouns are so called because they are nouns only in form.
They must always be modified, such as by a demonstrative e. There are a variety of formal nouns in Japanese. Koto as a formal noun turns a clause into a noun phrase. The predicate in the koto clause must appear in plain form. Koto is used to describe events, actions, or information in a rather formal, abstract and general way, and hence it often occurs with verbs of learning, deduction and thinking. I realized that people get depressed more in winter. My hobby is to go for a drive and to eat delicious food.
It has been decided that I will go on business to the U. I have decided to resign from my company this year. I can speak three languages.
0コメント